Uses of Computers in Hospitals

The invention of computers started the revolution of Information Technology (IT) in the world, bringing modern concepts into the world. In the past few decades, offices, factories and business adopted computers to enhance their performance. The next were the households to adopt the computers as their new form of entertainment. Today, computers, along with Internet technology are being introduced into hospitals to enhance the performance of the medical facilities that are dispensed. In the following paragraphs some important uses of computers in hospitals have been described. Apart from that the advantages of using computers to advance health care have also been discussed.

Uses of Computers in Hospitals: Medical Data
Every day hospitals and clinics which are attached to it churn out enormous volumes of data regarding patients, ailments, prescriptions, medications, medical billing details, etc. Such medical records, are now a days recorded into medical billing software. Such mammoth databases are known as Electronic Medical Records (EMR) and Electronic Health Records (EHR). These databases are operated by a set of computers and servers, and come in handy during medical alerts and emergencies. The concept of EHR is a bit broader than the EMR, as the database is accessible from different clinics and hospitals. Thus, a patient's medical history can be retrieved from any hospital by medical practitioners.

Uses of Computers in Hospitals: Medical Imaging
'Tests' are medical procedures where specified components of the human body are scanned. A test can be as simple as a regular blood test or it can be a complex CT scan. This process is often referred to as a medical imagery. In order to increase the precision of such procedures, computers have been adopted and integrated into the testing equipment. The Ultrasound and the MRI are the best examples where computers have been adopted, in order to make the process faster and precise. Thus medical tests and tools have become more advanced as a result of the use of computers.

Uses of Computers in Hospitals: Medical Examination
Many systems are underway for the development of medical monitoring which will help humans to properly monitor their own health. In many cases doctors and surgeons also use sophisticated computer aided equipment to treat their patients. Such systems and procedures include, bone scan procedure, prenatal ultrasound imaging, blood glucose monitors, advanced endoscopy which is used during surgery and blood pressure monitors. Basically these medical tests and tools provide significant convenience to medical practitioners. You will find that major laboratory equipment and heart rate monitors have already been computerized in many hospitals.

Advantages of Computers in Hospitals
There are significant advantages of using computers in hospitals. The importance of computers in hospitals has also increased drastically due to the fact that the procedures have to be speedy to cater to a larger population and the medical services have to be more precise.

To sum up, the advantages of computers in hospitals can be summarized as follows:

· Precise 'tests' and medical examinations

· Faster medical alerts, which are more accurate time-wise

· Enhanced data about a patients medical history

· Precision in diagnosis

· Precision in billing

· Automated updating of medical history

Use of Computers in the Medical Field

A computer has become an essential commodity in every hospital. Everything is computerized today, from open heart surgeries to X rays to various clinical tests. Everything is carried out efficiently and effectively by the computer. There are many advantages of computers that make it a must have by every medical professional. This article tells you about the use of computers in the medical field that would help you understand the wide array of computer applications used across the medicinal practice.

Computers in the Medical Office

There are various uses of computer in medical field as it plays a vital role in every medical office. It contributes a lot to the hospital administration where all the administrative processes are computerized. For example, staff records, recording incoming and outgoing time of the staff, the holiday records of the staff, etc. It is difficult to keep track of such things manually but with the help of computers, the task is simplified and is less time consuming. In most of the offices, accounting is also computerized that helps you keep the daily record of the financial transactions of the office. It also reduces the chances of money related frauds as all the data is stored properly that can be used for future reference. There are a lot of other types of use of computers in the medical field. Computer also helps in recording the names and contact details of the doctors and associated people. It is useful when it comes to recording the medical history of the patient, such as, previous treatments, tests, diagnosis, and symptoms, etc. Such information comes handy for the doctor in case of emergencies and when a new treatment is to be designed. The patients can also avail to computer counseling with the help of computers. Today, the bills are computer generated and hence, the chances of miscalculation are less. Apart from this, to avail the online transaction facilities computer is essential.

Use of Computers in Medicine

Use of computers in the medical field is also associated with the research and inventions in health sector. Various research studies are carried out with the help of various applications in the computer. For example, studying certain cells, micro organisms, bacteria, etc., is easily possible with computer. It helps you save all the related information that you can refer to, whenever required. One can also create electronic presentations of certain diseases or treatments that are useful to understand by the junior or trainee doctors so that they can prepare themselves for small and uncomplicated operations by taking guidance from senior doctors via web conferencing. In seminars and paper presentations on the health related topics, computerized presentations create more impact on the audience. It also helps the audience understand the the issues well. With the help of computer networking, doctors across the world can communicate with each other about new inventions and unique health conditions, etc. All the countries are conducting research studies and this information can be mutually shared by the medical fraternity with the help of computers and internet technology. The computer makes the world smaller and brings people together.

Uses of Computers in Hospitals

Computers are widely used in all the hospitals for numerous purposes apart from administration, accounting, billing, and appointments. It literally helps doctors in performing various surgeries, especially laparascopic surgeries are possible because of computers where doctors insert the medical tools and small camera and conduct an operation with the help of computers and monitors. Many high tech surgical machines and instruments are endowed with small computer systems so that every surgical process is recorded and monitored to avoid complications. Many clinical imaging processes are conducted and examined with the help of computers, such as X ray and CT scan, etc. Computers also play a vital role in conducting various clinical and biological laboratory tests in hospitals that help in correct diagnosis of the disease. Many critical patients who's heart rate, pulse rate, and brain readings, etc., need be recorded and monitored continuously, are observed through computers. Its virtually impossible for humans to note down every movement of the internal organs of the patients but computers do it with ease. Importance of computers in medicine has grown so much that many patients who need to be provided with life support system are also governed by the special computerized system only. Such is the impact of computers on a medical practice.

Importance of Computers in Medicine.

Computers are the excellent means for storage of patient related data. Big hospitals employ computer systems to maintain patient records. It is often necessary to maintain detailed records of the medical history of patients. Doctors often require the information about a patient's family history, physical ailments, already diagnosed diseases and prescribed medicines. This information can be effectively stored in a computer database.

Computers can keep track of prescriptions and billing information. They can be used to store the information about the medicines prescribed to a patient as well as those, which cannot be prescribed to him/her. Computers enable an efficient storage of huge amounts of medical data.

Medicine comprises vast base of knowledge. Computer storage can serve as the best means of housing this information. Medical journals, research and diagnosis papers, important medical documents and reference books can best be stored in an electronic format.

Many of the modern-day medical equipment have small, programmed computers. Many of the medical appliances of today work on pre-programmed instructions. The circuitry and logic in most of the medical equipment is basically a computer. The functioning of hospital-bed beeping systems, emergency alarm systems, X-ray machines and several such medical appliances is based on computer logic.

Computer software is used for diagnosis of diseases. It can be used for the examination of internal organs of the body. Advanced computer-based systems are used to examine delicate organs of the body. Some of the complex surgeries can be performed with the aid of computers. The different types of monitoring equipment in hospitals are often based on computer programming.

Medical imaging is a vast field that deals with the techniques to create images of the human body for medical purposes. Many of the modern methods of scanning and imaging are largely based on the computer technology. We have been able to implement many of the advanced medical imaging techniques, thanks to the developments in computer science. Magnetic resonance imaging employs computer software. Computed tomography makes use of digital geometry processing techniques to obtain 3-D images. Sophisticated computers and infrared cameras are used for obtaining high-resolution images. Computers are widely used for the generation of 3-D images in medicine.

Computer networking enables quicker communication. Computers and Internet have proved to be a boon in all the spheres of life. In the field of medicine, computers allow for faster communication between a patient and a doctor. Doctors can collaborate better over the Internet. Today, it is possible to obtain experts' opinions within seconds by means of the Internet. Medical professionals sitting on opposite sides of the globe can communicate within minutes by means of the Internet. It is due to computer networking technology that network communication has become easy. Medical practitioners can discuss medical issues in medical forums. They can exchange images and messages in seconds and derive conclusions speedily. They can seek advice and share knowledge in a convenient manner over the Internet.

The importance of computers cannot be stressed enough as computer technology has revolutionized the field of medicine.

Computer Uses

The uses of computers is universal. Computers are used in applications ranging from running a farm, diagnosing a disease, and designing to constructing and launching a space vehicle. Because the development of computers has been largely the work of scientists, it is natural that a large body of computer applications serves the scientist. The articles included herein relate to the uses of computers today in business, science, education, schools, hospitals, medicine, health care, military, agriculture, law enforcement, at home and in our everyday lives.

Use of Computers in the Medical Field

We rarely think of use of computers in the medical field, but computers are extensively used for various advantages. To know more about use of computers in medical practice.

Use of Computers in Business

The wide spread use of computers in business organizations, has successfully provided a certain ease, speed and accuracy to the way in which modern businesses run. To know more about the uses of computers in business.

Uses of Computers in Hospitals

Of late, computers are being included in hospitals and medical clinics throughout the world. Some uses of computers in hospitals and clinics have been described in the following paragraphs. To know more about the advantages of such advanced systems in hospitals.

Use Of Computers In Education

The use of computers in education sector has increased greatly over the past few years. In this article, we shall study the benefits of computers in education. 

Advantages of Computers

Computers have affected every aspect of our day-to-day life. Let's look into the advantages of computers.

How has Computer Technology affected our Lives

Computer technology has brought about a dramatic change to our daily life. How has it affected our lives.

Role of Computers in Education

What is the role of computers in education? What are the benefits of introducing computers early in education.

What are Computers Going to be Like in the Future

Have you thought about the future of computing? Have you imagined what computers in future are going to be like? Let's try to find out.

Importance of Computers in Medicine

What is the importance of computers in medicine? How can computer technology be harnessed in the medical field.

Importance of Computer Education

Computers find a wide variety of applications in different spheres of life. With an increase in their widespread use and their ever-increasing popularity, computer education has become the need of the day. To know more about the importance of computer education.

Apple iMac 21.5-inch (Core i3)

Specifications Type General Purpose, Multimedia Processor Family Intel Core i3 RAM 4 GB Storage Capacity 500 GB RAID No Graphics Card ATI Radeon HD 4670 Primary Optical Drive Dual-Layer DVD+/-RW Operating System Mac OS X 10.6 More

Features
The new entry-level iMac 21.5-inch (Core i3) comes with a dual-core Intel Core i3-540 processor. Thanks to Hyper Threading, the Core i3 is a dual-core processor that acts like a quad-core, since it can process four streams of data at once. The system also has 4GB of 1,333MHz DDR3 SDRAM, a 500GB, 7,200rpm hard drive, 802.11 a/b/g/n Wi-Fi (both 2.4GHz and 5GHz), and a DVD-burning SuperDrive. Support for 5GHz Wi-Fi is necessary in crowded apartments and dorms, where the cacophony of routers may interfere with your WiFi signal.

Users can order more memory pre-purchase (up to 8GB), but that's the only internal option on the $1,199, entry-level model. You'll need to trade up to a more expensive $1,499 model to order a faster processor, better graphics, larger hard drive, etc. You can add other external options during the ordering process, including a wired mouse and keyboard to replace the wireless ones, the Apple IR Remote, Apple Software (iWork, Final Cut Express, etc.) and the new Apple Magic Trackpad ($69) (stay tuned for our review). Apple is also the Apple Magic TrackPad as an $69 option (stay tuned for our review), as well as a $29 battery charger with six extra rechargeable batteries to power all your wireless peripherals (mouse, keyboard, trackpad).

The iMac 21.5-inch (Core i3), like the new Apple Mac mini (HDMI) ($699 list) supports new SDXC cards in its SD-card reader. This means it could theoretically read a 2TB SDXC card sometime in the future, though those cards currently tap out at a still impressive 64GB.

The iMac's 1080p HD screen makes it a great PC for watching HD videos online and from the iTunes store. The iMac 21.5-inch (Core i3) still lacks a Blu-ray option, but you can buy a third-party USB HDTV tuner that works under Mac OS X. You could perceive the lack of TV tuner or Blu-ray as a drawback, but there's also the argument that the iTunes Store is one of the better, extensive sources of HD videos and TV shows on the planet. In any case, the iMac is a great base station for your iPod/iPhone/iPad and all your iTunes-organized entertainment (music, videos, and apps). It doesn't have to be said that the Mac is free from bloatware, as usual, there's none on the system.

All-in-one Desktop PCs Keep It Simples

• Apple iMac 21.5-inch (Core i3)
• Lenovo Think Centre A70z
• Apple iMac 21.5-inch (Core 2 Duo)
• MSI Wind Top AE2220
• HP Pavilion All in One 200-5020
• Apple iMac 27-inch (Core i7)
• Lenovo Think Centre M90z
• Lenovo Idea Centre A300
• Lenovo Idea Centre B500
• Lenovo C315
• Gateway One ZX6900-01e
• Acer Aspire AZ5610-U9072

                  

Apple iMac 21.5-inch (Core i3)
 $1,199 direct

The Apple iMac 21.5-inch (Core i3) is the system that can convert your friend/relative/significant other into a Mac-faithful. It has a great design, stellar performance, and a pretty kickass price. For all these reasons and more, the Apple iMac 21.5-inch regains the Editors' Choice for midpriced all-in-one desktops.

 

Lenovo Think Centre A70z   
$797 list
      

The Lenovo Think Centre A70z can work as the primary PC in your business if you're the sole proprietor, or as the PC for your staff and receptionist. It's an all-in-one business PC that may make "more sense" than other consumer-grade alternatives, particularly if you need business features like a serial port.

Apple iMac 21.5-inch (Core 2 Duo)

$1,199 direct

The Apple iMac 21.5-inch (Core 2 Duo), the "baby brother" to the 27-inch iMac, is $500 less expensive, yet has much of same power. It slots easily into the niche between the cheap nettops and the expensive HDTV-replacement PCs: It's the all-in-one multimedia PC to buy if you need performance more than fancy features like touchscreens and HDTV inputs.

MSI Wind Top AE2220

$950 list

On paper, the MSI Wind Top AE2220 is definitely a challenger for the "best all-in-one desktop PC." It's a sub-$1,000 touchscreen-equipped desktop with plenty of HD media features. However, a few shortcomings keep it from scoring higher.

HP Pavilion All-in-one 200-5020
$780 list

The HP Pavilion All-in-one 200-5020 is well-designed and nicely-priced, but you'll have to accept a lot of bloatware and poor 3D performance.

Apple iMac 27-inch (Core i7)

$2,199 list

Apple drops a Nehalem-based Core i7 processor in their class-leading iMac 27-inch. It has a fairly hefty price tag, but backs it up with stellar performance and the high-quality design we've come to expect from the fruit company in Cupertino. The iMac (Core i7) is an easy Editors' Choice.

Lenovo Think Centre M90z

$1,119 direct

The Lenovo Think Centre M90z desktop is a conglomeration of innovative features, all mixed together to give you a very good all-in-one PC for business users. If you "get" or need touch computing in your business, this is the one to get.

Lenovo Idea Centre A300

$949 list

The Lenovo Idea Centre A300 is an all-in-one with a fashion-forward design that will fit any room's setting. This media center desktop has almost everything to fit your digital entertainment needs, but lacks a Blu-ray player to complete the package.

Lenovo Idea Centre B500

$1,399 direct

If you're looking for HD enjoyment, multimedia processing, and 3D power, the Lenovo Idea Centre B500 is the all-in-one PC to get. The addition of Blu-ray, Internet, and even an HDTV tuner, all provide you with the HD sources you want.

Lenovo C315

$849 list

The Lenovo C315 keeps the 20-inch all-in-one form factor and adds multi-touch support. As such, it's a contender for the video consuming, all-in-one PC aficionado. While it's compact and powerful enough for many users, its touch support adds to the system's price, and I'm not convinced it's quite worth it (yet).

Gateway One ZX6900-01e

$1,019.99 list

The Gateway One ZX6900-01e adds Blu-ray playback to a touchscreen all-in-one PC. It has Intel's Core i3 power to motor through multimedia tasks with ease, but a few drawbacks keep it from scoring higher.

Acer Aspire AZ5610-U9072

$900 list

Acer Aspire AZ5610-U9072 is a great PC for the whole family, whether you just want to quickly jump online for social networking or play games.

All-in-one Desktop PC

An all-in-one desktop is the perfect system for those with compact spaces or prefer a minimalist setup. We give you tips on finding one that fits your needs, and give you the lowdown on some of the hottest all-in-one desktops out there.

 

The all-in-one desktop PC is an interesting beast. They were born out of the desire for computer manufacturers to both simplify (setup and shipping) and emulate the "dumb terminal" look that computer experts would be comfortable with. There have been all-in-one PCs for almost as long as there have been desktop PCs: The Commodore PET, various flavors of TRS-80, the Compaq Portable, the Kaypro II, and the original Apple Macintosh. Take a monitor, put the PC internals in the same chassis or in the base, ship it with a keyboard, viola! Instant all-in-one PC.

All-in-one PCs fell out of favor for a while, since expandability was priority in the 1990s. Apple reenergized the all-in-one genre with its successful iMac line. Since then Apple has reemerged as one of the most powerful tech companies. Everyone and their silicon fabricator want to taste some of that success.

Back when the iMac first appeared in 1998, it was powered by a PowerPC chip; these days, Intel has become Apple's desktop and laptop chip supplier. You'll find CPUs from AMD and Intel in most U.S.-sold all-in-one PCs, from the power-saving AMD Athlon II Neo and Intel Atom all the way up to high-end multi-core CPUS like the AMD Phenom II and Intel's Core i7. Occasionally, PC makers will use notebook-class CPUs and motherboard chipsets in order to save power consumption and help keep their systems running cool (a hot PC is an unhappy PC).

How Much Should You Be Paying?

A decent dual-core CPU with integrated graphics in the all-in-one PC category comes at a lower price point, from $400 to under $800. Jump up to $800-$1,300 for dual-core processors, light 3D graphics, and higher resolution monitors. Above $1,300, you should expect multimedia features (Blu-ray, higher-end 3D, HDTV, quad core CPUs) and creature comforts (wireless keyboards, 802.11 a/b/g/n 2.4GHz/5GHz, and ambient lighting). Touchscreens are a hot property in the mid-range and high-end all-in-one systems, but they won't be a "must-have" feature for at least another year or two (if at all). As an aside, touch functionality is wonderful for the occasional interface with the computer (it's real neat swiping pictures out of a stack or zooming into a map). However, holding your arm out straight for Web surfing will get tiring fast; a wireless mouse is still a better interface when the screen is 2 to 4 feet in front of you. You really need a tablet or phone form factor for touch to work as a primary interface.

The Apple iMac 27-inch (Core i7) is, of course, one of the standard bearers for all-in-one PCs. However, systems like the Lenovo IdeaCentre A300 also espouse a design-forward chassis and are lust objects in their own right. Business users can confidently buy all-in-one PCs like the Apple iMac 21.5-inch (Core 2 Duo) or the Lenovo ThinkCentre M90z. Big box stores will stock systems like the HP Pavilion All-in-one 200-5020, Gateway One ZX6900, and Acer Aspire AZ5610.

Different Uses of Computers in Business

           Computers are used for all aspects of running a business. Computer use in a business enhances productivity and provides results that might not otherwise be possible. Businesses use computers to keep records, develop budgets and forecasts, prepare marketing documents, research and stay in contact with other employees and customers. Businesses should look at their operation and ensure that they are using their computers to the fullest extent.

 1.   Keep Records

Computer programs such as QuickBooks and other accounting programs allow businesses to keep detailed records. These programs track accounts payable, accounts receivable and sales. They also provide an easy and quick way for a business to send out invoices to customers and handle payroll functions. Back office productivity and accuracy can increase greatly when using an accounting program. 

2.  Budgeting and Forecasting

Computers can be used to prepare detailed budgets and corporate forecasts. Inexpensive accounting programs allow even people with limited computer knowledge to develop detailed budgets that will help keep the company on track. They can also be used to forecast future sales and business expansions. Spreadsheet programs such as Excel can also be used for budgeting and forecasting.

      3.   Prepare Marketing Documents

There are a wide variety of programs that allow businesses to easily prepare dynamic marketing documents. Adobe Photoshop provides many templates that users can manipulate to produce eye-catching custom marketing materials. These programs make it easy for people who do not have a creative background to prepare professional-looking documents quickly and painlessly.

      4.   Research

The Internet offers a tremendous amount of information that a business can use to maintain an edge. Businesses can use the Internet to research its competitors' products and prices by studying their websites. They can also get a glimpse into how customers view their own products by reading customer reviews on sites such as Amazon. When launching a new product a company can perform market research using online questionnaires and surveys.

      5.  Communication

One of the biggest benefits of the computer in the workplace is the enhanced communication they provide. Coworkers can easily communicate with each other through email. Customer service departments can use email and instant messaging services to communicate effectively with customers. Web conferencing provides a cheap alternative to meetings for companies. Instead of travelling to a meeting attendees can join a meeting from their office. Businesses can also use email and websites to advertise their products and services.

      6.  Tip

Updating computers regularly is vital to a business. Outdated computers can cause serious problems, crash often and reduce worker productivity. As technology evolves, the computing power needed to run-cutting edge computer programs increases. These new programs will often run poorly on out-of-date computers. As a result, in the long run the most cost-effective strategy is to keep your business' computers current.

Uses for Computers in Business

            Computers have become a requirement in the business industry. Computers easily complete duties that are tedious and timely for humans. The business uses of computers are extensive. Although many of the computer duties are not irreplaceable, business has become dependent on their accuracy and timeliness.

1. Accounting

Business success is dependent upon accuracy. Many businesses use accounting software and ledgering systems to ensure the accuracy of their financial status.

2. Customer Interaction

Computers now assist human call centers with answering customer questions, taking payments and providing general assistance. The automated voice systems are available with unrestricted hours and are always friendly.

3. Scheduling

Scheduling is of great importance to many businesses, especially businesses involved in manufacturing and deliveries. Scheduling systems allow businesses to ensure they are meeting their goals while being effecient.

4. Communication

Communication is most important in business. Computers provide businesses with a wide array of communication methods that include, but are not limited to, email, chat, web conferencing and VOIP.

5. Websites and Advertising

The combination of websites, advertising and marketing provide a swift means to vast business globalization. Websites make the company quickly available to everyone.

Samsung N130-13B 10.1-Inch Slate Blue Netbook

          The Samsung is an unusually solid netbook with good performance and doesn't look like a cheap kids toy. I've seen quite a few positive comments on this model and it offers a good mix of styling and performance. As with all netbooks it won't blow other computers away, but the price is right and the specifications balanced enough to give a good experience.

Here's some of the main features:

• 2.8lbs
• 10.1 inch screen
• 1024 x 600 resolution
• 1GB of memory
• 160GB hard drive
• Fast Ethernet
• Wireless 802.11b/g/n

The size of the screen is enough for a web browser, although it will be cramping some websites and they might need to be zoomed out for optimal viewing.

The Intel Atom processor is the stock specification for netbooks ever since it was first introduced so there are no surprises and no real performance differences between this and other netbooks.

The keyboard, often a tough point for those with larger hands, is about 90% the size of a standard keyboard and is big enough to use comfortably, albeit not for a full weeks work at the computer.

The outside of the netbook is robust and does well against scratches and abrasions.

1GB of memory will handle most web browsing needs. This will allow two or three programs to be open at the same time. Firefox with 15-20 tabs, Tweetdeck and an instant messaging client will handle just fine. Running one at a time will yield better results though.

I'm glad that 802.11n wireless networking is included. As netbooks are meant to be connected to the Internet mostly and do almost everything online, a decent network connection is pretty important. Speeding up the local connection, i.e. the wireless connection from the computer to the Internet router, makes the experience that much more seamless.

Other extras include audio input, audio output, built-in speakers, built-in webcam, built-in microphone, VGA port, and three USB ports.

I'm not drooling over netbooks as I once was, but I think this one would be high up on my list if I was planning on getting one. It hits does well where it needs to and looks good to boot. The $300 price is pretty tough to beat.

Computers in business - 1970 to 1980

            Computers had entered business, industry and trade in the 1960s, but it was at the beginning of the 1970s that this process gathered momentum. One reason for this was the great leap forward in microelectronics, which led to an enormous increase in performance coupled with far smaller, cheaper computer systems. The increase in the use of computers was accompanied by major technical, organizational and social change at the workplace, which caused existing business processes to be largely adapted to electronic data processing, resulting in rapid growth in requirements for new work qualifications in offices and in manufacturing.

               Companies first began to work with computer systems at the beginning of the 1960s. These systems were installed at computer centres. The operating costs of such a computer centre were so high that the systems had to run day and night to be profitable.

               It was only large companies that generated such large volumes of data. Accordingly, it was large banks and insurance companies that first set up computer centres. A small number of highly respected computer specialists worked there - programmers who wrote the software and operators who ran the systems. Data that had been recorded was processed there and returned to office staff as computer printouts.

                      With the development of data communications equipment, it was no longer necessary to install peripheral devices in computer centre locations. Terminals at office workers' desks made it possible to enter into a dialogue with the computer, i.e. to directly access the data. In 1965, IBM launched the System/360 mainframe on the market, and finally established itself as the world's leading computer supplier. From this point on, IBM set the standards.

               With the development of data communications equipment, it was no longer necessary to install peripheral devices in computer centre locations. Terminals at office workers' desks made it possible to enter into a dialogue with the computer, i.e. to directly access the data. In 1965, IBM launched the System/360 mainframe on the market, and finally established itself as the world's leading computer supplier. From this point on, IBM set the standards.

                 In the mid-1960s, a special approach to data processing was introduced. It was predominant in Germany, where the whole range of office computers was referred to as Mittlere Datentechnik, in English later dubbed mid-range systems. Various companies - many of them from the office machine industry, such as Kienzle and Philips, or newcomers like Nixdorf - launched special small office computers for commercial administration, tailored to meet end users' needs.

            At the beginning of the 1970s, numerous newly founded software houses in the USA and Europe discovered this market opening and satisfied the exploding demand for application programs by developing manufacturer-independent standard software.

              Minicomputers came onto the market in the USA at about the same time as office computers in Europe. The first was Digital Equipment Corporation's pdp-8, which was launched in 1965. These systems were the answer to the mainframes that had dominated the market in the USA until then, and were a great commercial success. In particular, scientists who wrote their own programs were keen on minicomputers, which made them independent of computer centres. Minicomputers and microcomputers quickly found their way from universities to the business world.

           As flexible, fast process-control computers, they were used in factories from the 1970s to plan, control and automate manufacturing processes. The increase in computer-controlled manufacturing technologies was motivated by the necessity to cut costs and to ensure more efficient, flexible and cheaper production. Computer-controlled robots initially became widespread in the automotive manufacturing sector in the early 1980s. About 60% of all computers were in use there, and replaced 20 to 26% of factory workers. From there, computers penetrated the whole world of industry.